FriedrichHayek , born Friedrich August von Hayek ( May 8 1899 , Vienna – 23 March 1992 , Fribourg ) is a philosopher and economist of the Austrian School , promoter of liberalism , as opposed to socialism and the statism .His thought is known throughout his book The Road to Serfdom , published in 1944 . He received the “Nobel Prize” of economics in 1974 for “his pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for his analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional” 1.Hayek was interested in many fields of human knowledge as the economy , the law , the psychology , the philosophy or political science . He is the author of works of political philosophy such as The Constitution of Liberty (1960) and Law, Legislation and Liberty (1973-1979), significant works of liberalism today.Friedrich Hayek was born in Vienna under the Austro-Hungarian Empire in an intellectual family: his father, August Edler von Hayek wrote a famous book of botany, while he was a cousin of Ludwig Wittgenstein by his mother, Felicitas von Juraschek. He studied law and political science at the University of Vienna where he graduated in 1921 (Doctor of Law) and 1923 (PhD in political science). Affecting many areas of knowledge, he also studied psychology and the economy . Indeed, he considered that a good economist would look at all areas of knowledge 2 . Initially close to the ideas socialists including Fabians 3 , it is close to the ideas liberal after attending a private seminar of Ludwig von Mises with, among others, Fritz Machlup . He received the teaching of Friedrich von Wieser before meeting with Ludwig von Mises and play under his direction the works of Carl Menger and Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk .From 1923 to 1924, Hayek is Assistant Professor Jeremiah W. Jenks of New York University . While in New York, during which he began under the direction of James D. Magee a third argument – that he leaves unfinished – entitled “Is the function of money is Orlando personal injury attorney consistent with an artificial stabilization of purchasing power? “He also took courses at the Columbia University and New School for Social Research. Through trotinette freestyle letters from Joseph Schumpeter , he met Irving Fisher and American ringtones for iphone institutionalists such as John Bates Clark and Wesley Clair Mitchell 4 . Back in Austria, he worked for the Austrian government, helping to solve the economic issues related to the treaty that ended the First World War .He then enjoyed a certain notoriety, which How to Lose Weight Fast allows him to be invited in 1931 for a series of four lectures at the London School of Economics (LSE) by the economist Lionel Robbins .
There has been so successful that it was later appointed professor at the LSE. This then counts as a canapé convertible faculty of men who have a strong influence on England’s post-war William Beveridge (director until 1937), Harold Laski, a professor of political science that is becoming closer and closer Communism, Hugh Dalton 5 will be postwar finance minister (Chancellor of the Exchequer) in the government of Clement Attlee .Refusing to join Austria annexed by the Nazis, he acquired in 1938 the British . The same year, he participated in the Symposium Walter Lippmann in Paris hcg diet drops bringing together many liberal intellectuals, eager chiropractic marketing to reestablish the liberalism . His reputation grew as an economist in the 1930s but his theories are not well received by supporters of Keynes . Hayek also regretted all his life to have declined invitations to argue against Keynesian policies.In 1944 appeared his most read The Road to Serfdom . This is an analysis of totalitarianism that is positioned against the tide of the great ideologies that dominate the time, Nazism and communism . The central thesis is that the socialization of the economy and the massive intervention of the state of the market lead to the suppression of individual freedoms. The coercive power of the state transforms any economic or social policy issue. He considers that there is no difference in kind but only in degree between communism and its imitator the Nazis , between socialism and totalitarianism . This is a commercial success translated into 20 languages ??and have experienced more than 30 editions in the United States. Its abridged edition in the Readers’ Digest in 1945 reached about 600,000 American readers 6 . This book is not simply a reflection of the great ideologies, it also fights the ideas of Beatrice and Sidney Webb 7 , two of the founders of the London School of Economics , of Harold Laski 8 and Edward Hallett Carr . Hayek no no hair removal will not triumph, and it is rather the ideas of those whom he opposed, which prevail in England after the war. If the book does deal with the public, he acquired a reputation as a polemicist who serves in the academic world. He spent the following decades away from mainstream academia. Later, Hayek considers that at the time his book was “discredited” in academic circles 9 .In April 1947 , he co-founded the Mont Pelerin Society , an international association of scholars interested in promoting liberalism . He is president from 1947 to 1961 and remains influential until his death.In 1950, he left the LSE for the University of Chicago . Denied the Department of Economics note 1 , he teaches “Social Thought” (literally, thoughts social).
His position is unpaid but is financed by patrons whose Liberty Fund . If he rubs economists like Milton Friedman , his interests are more oriented psychology and political philosophy. From 1962 to 1968, when he retired from teaching, he is professor at the University of Freiburg im Breisgau . However, it remains a visiting professor at the University of Salzburg until 1992.In 1974 he shared the “Nobel Prize” of Economics with Gunnar Myrdal , an ideological rival, for “his pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional ” one , the work mainly in the 1930s. The Committee welcomes a profound and original thinking that perhaps contributed to make him one of the few economists to warn of the possibility of a major economic crisis before the crash of autumn 1929: the Nobel committee, Hayek showed how the monetary expansion, accompanied by a credit in excess of the rate of voluntary saving, could lead to a misallocation of resources, particularly affecting the capital car insurance quote structure.The award entails a renewed interest in the Austrian school of economics . He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in Joann Fabrics coupons 1991.The Road to Serfdom Template: Main article: The Road to SerfdomPublished in 1944 in the UK, Hayek’s pamphlet defending the free market system and warns British of the dangers of collectivism. For Hayek, the ultimate consequence of economic planning is the control of the political universe and the loss of freedoms in that the policies desired by the Socialists are the Trojan Horse idea of totalitarian they reject 10 , 11 , 12 .The economic studies Theory of climate In Prices and Production ( Prices and Production , 1931) and The Pure Theory of Capital ( The Pure Theory of Capital , 1941), he developed the Austrian theory of the economy founded by Ludwig von Mises that the economic crisis is caused by the political monetary expansionary central bank distorts the system of relative prices in the production structure, the excess credit over-development stages of this structure the most remote of final consumption, where the price increases then prove that investments n were not profitable. Under these conditions, the policy adjustment should be to let prices return to their equilibrium configuration, while renouncing the excess credit – unlike Keynes – encouraging savings to reduce the gap faster between investment and financing, the crisis has revealed. This theory of the economy, won the “Nobel Prize” of economics .Austrian economic theory starts by listing the logical laws of economics, which are still more certain that the physical laws [ref. required] , and it is none other that are stable (methodological dualism). The Plastic Containers major difference of approach is to study the cyclical situation in the light of the price system, and how central planning of the production of currency by the central bank false information that these prices are carriers.Critique of Keynesianism Embodying traditional Franco-Austrian (from Charles Coquelin to Ludwig von Mises , which was initiated from 1927) [ref. needed] that assigns economic and financial crises misdirected investments through a policy of excess credit, he rejects the explanation of the situation – he considers ignorant and superficial 13 – made by his friend and opponent 14 John Maynard Keynes that it describes 1976 as “a man of great intelligence forex trading platform but to the limited knowledge of economic theory 15.
He regretted not having the inconsistent judging and opportunistic, writing time against his General Theory rebuttal she called. Subsequently, however, it will be a game to show how the Keynesian policies of economic recovery , based on the use of public budget , over the long term produce both inflation , economic stagnation and unemployment (such as the stagflation of the year 1970 in England and elsewhere), a combination that “macroeconomics” Keynesian excluded by assumption. Like his mentor Mises , Hayek has always rejected the method of construction of macroeconomic “models” based on correlations between aggregates 16 , seeing a cyclical phenomena in the disorder of the whole system of prices, and judging from other than the notion of “general price level” masked most of the relevant phenomena.The main features of Hayek’s work in the social sciences The “spontaneous order” Hayek opposes intellectuals ” constructivist , “according to his vocabulary note 2 , which establish “social projects” which he criticizes the ” scientism ” 17 . In an epistemological perspective, it attempts to show that no one can understand the world in its complexity, including the government. Any proposed collectivist society, any attempt to sound management and global society does not necessarily account of personal autonomy and blu cigs coupon unpredictability of their actions, and is doomed to failure. With “constructivist”, Hayek refers mainly socialists, but also the “conservatives” who want to shape society according to their ideal.Hayek in his work does not invoke an implicit calculation of Providence or Nature, and it does not purport to support its claims about intellectual grasp of the social system that is as it would put in a position to explain all certainty. He argues instead that it is not possible to human thought to dominate the system enough to understand, and that’s where it relies to support its commitment to the market. It introduces a new argument, based on natural selection. The basic idea of all his argument is that the behaviors that allow the company to operate satisfactorily and effectively have been selected and transmitted through generations in the form of rules and values, but no one ever ‘could not be achieved and a detailed understanding of the overall mechanism that puts a sum of individual behavior to a collective effect, and which alone would justify rationally these rules and values. “Most of the rules of conduct that govern our actions and most of the institutions that emerge from this regularity are all adaptations to the impossibility for anyone to knowingly take into account all the separate facts that make up the order of society 18 . “The accumulation over centuries of successful experiences and failures, through which values ??and rules of behavior were selected, is a phenomenon too complex to be understood fully. The experiments themselves are forgotten, only the remaining rules and values, and these should especially be observed that their reason for being eludes us forever.Main article: Constructivism (policy) .Against the “constructivist”, his critique extends to the legal and institutional: as a result of Adam Ferguson and other authors flagship Scottish Enlightenment (“Scottish Enlightenment”), Hayek showed a preference for the “ordered structures” or “institutions” ( Establishments 19 ) which “are the result of the action of many men, but are not the result of human design 20 “, that they have gradually formed by a series of tests and discovery of errors, without despising a priori rationality of their predecessors.He said the best guarantee for the maintenance of a civilized society lies in maintaining a “spontaneous order” of interaction between individual brains, which only electronic cigarette allows “the ordering of the unknown.” According to him, trying to impose instead a planned order, necessarily few, can only destroy local production of information and the discipline of responsibility that are necessary for the regulation of social order.Main article: invisible hand .His criticism against the constructivist extends to economists neoclassical and the tendency to assimilate the methods of economics to those of physical and mathematical sciences:”In the first half of the xix th century, a new attitude came out. The term “science” was increasingly restricted to physical and biological disciplines at the same time began to claim a precision and certainty in particular which distinguish them from all others.
Their success was such that they soon came to exercise an extraordinary fascination for those working in other areas, they were quick to imitate their teaching and vocabulary. Thus began the tyranny that the methods and techniques of science in the strict sense has never ceased to carry on other disciplines. They cared to increasingly assert their equal status by showing that they were adopting the same methods as their sisters whose success was so bright, instead of further adapt their methods to their problems. This ambition to imitate Science in its methods only in his mind was, for a hundred and twenty years, dominate the study of man, but has at the same time barely contributed to the knowledge of social phenomena 21 . It is also for studying the conditions under which information is created and works in society, which Hayek was a pioneer, that opposing the skepticism of it in the matter, proponents of a rational political philosophy do not doubt that socialism only uses the “trappings of science” (the phrase is Rothbard in Economists and charlatans ) and invokes a “rationality” deterministic, claiming more ‘experience’ and “measures” of his kind, and for acting as if the other did not exist.Critique of the notion of “social justice” In the same concern to emphasize the complexity of the social order and spontaneity of his actors, including Hayek course show that the concept of ” social justice “can not logically lead to objective criteria for action” here and now “because we can never adequately predict the effects of our actions to say whether or not they lead to the state of society to achieve in the future that serves as a reference standard – assuming that the various Socialists, who opposed this conception of “justice” to the rules of social morality common, have only managed to agree on it. The concept is reduced to a slogan that is invoked in connection with various acts of redistribution policy 22 .Democracy Like most liberals since Alexis de Tocqueville , Hayek believes that democracy is a means, not ends in themselves, “What in the Western world, the universal adult suffrage is considered the best arrangement, does Crossfit Denver not prove that is required by a fundamental principle 23 “. The main advantage that it recognizes to democracy is to allow the peaceful transition of political power at the top. That “something precious and worth fighting to preserve” 24 . However, this is not a regime of democracy to defend itself and it is imperative that this plan is framed by the Rule of law (rule of law or rule of law). This is not because the power emanates from the people it should be unlimited, ” all government, especially a democratic government should have limited powers ” 25 . Between democratic government and unlimited power that free ipad does not draw its essence of the people but would be limited by law, it is he who wins the approval of Hayek. “I prefer Translation Services a non-democratic government limited by law to unlimited democratic government (and therefore essentially lawless) ” says he in a conference in 1976 26 . According to Gilles Dostaler , mistrust vis-à-vis the unlimited democracy must be understood in terms of the personal story of a man who lived in Vienna in the early decades of the xx th century and directly observed the runaway crowds 27 . The anti-liberal reproach often the central section of the following quote, set in 1981 during an interview: “I would say that, as institutions for the long term, I am completely against dictatorships. But a dictatorship may be a need for a transitional period. Sometimes it is necessary for a country to have, for a time, one form or another of dictatorial power. [...] Personally I prefer a dictator rather than a liberal democratic government lacking liberalism. My personal impression is that in Chile for example, we will witness the transition from a dictatorial government to a Liberal government 28 . “Democracy must avoid demagoguery and the infringement of individual acts that would result from a careless overflow of democracy beyond the limited scope as it should be applied according to Hayek. He added that democracy coupled with the statism , tends to become totalitarian if the scope of the state is not limited to, the people pushing for more and more spending. Hayek believes that the citizens of Western societies have ceased to be autonomous by becoming dependent on the benevolence of the state.Hayek claims that the democracy of his time to becoming a “democracy of bargaining 29 ” .
For him the biggest threat to market order and democracy is not so much individual egoism as groups. “While we can roughly say that the selfishness in the individual lead most cases the person to act in a way indirectly supported the retention of a spontaneous order of society, the selfishness of the group ended, or the desire of its members to become such a group will always be in opposition to the common interest of members of a Great Society 30 ” . What bothers Hayek also is that, following Mancur Olson , he believes that all interests are not organized and that those who can do it may exploit the other 31 .The ideal constitution as Hayek The House of Commons at the beginning of xix th century.For Friedrich Hayek, the constituents in xviii th century are well aware that it was necessary to separate the judiciary from the legislature but did not anticipate that the legislature would be “given also the Wire Shelving mission of leading government business 32 ” and therefore that ‘there would be “an inextricable confusion between the two tasks – one to formulate rules of fair conduct and that guide specific actions for the government to concrete 32 ” . His ideal constitution aims to remedy this and provides for two representative bodies, a constitutional court, a government and administration. Its institutional structure is as follows:A purely legislative Assembly Seattle physical therapy responsible to enact general laws. It should be close to what was in Athens on nomothete 33 who alone had the right to modify the abstract or general laws Nomos . It should represent “people’s opinions about the kinds of government actions that are fair and those that are 34.” The people in charge of this mission should be “an age mature enough” and be elected for a period long enough, “for example, fifteen years, so they do not concern the re-election 35 ” . This meeting would define “uniform rules by which the overall weight of samples needed is divided between citizens 36 ” . On direct taxes, he believes some progressiveness “not only permissible but necessary 37 “Assembly a government whose “decisions should respect the rules of just conduct imposed by the Legislature … in particular it can not issue commands requiring private citizens, which does not flow directly and necessarily the rules laid down by the other assembly 38 ‘ . This meeting HDMI switch would decide the “total amount of expenditure and allocation 36 ” .A constitutional court denver car accident lawyer to settle disputes between the two previous meetings 39 .The government is the executive committee of the Assembly and government “could be considered a fourth lower level of the overall structure, while the bureaucratic apparatus of the Authority would be the fifth 40 ” .Reviews Luc Ferry and Alain Renaut believe that the criticism “anti-constructivist” Hayek and his praise of a non-naive but critical rationalism and evolutionary involve cunning of reason and therefore an economic form of historicism . Dostaler Gilles also considers that “in its economic analysis and in its more global reflection on society, Hayek sometimes uses theoretical weapons which he has long denounced the weaknesses” 41 According to Philippe Légé, Hayek’s thought suffers from multiple inconsistencies, contradictions about the order spontaneous , ambiguity as to the ability to make predictions in social science, praised the conformism and authoritarianism contradicting his defense of freedom 42 .Others have accused him of Denver Divorce Attorney using the concepts of systemic or science of complexity as the self-organization in a manner different from them, so Jean-Louis Le Moigne which is related to current epistemological ” constructivist ” 43 or Jean Zin .For the anti-utilitarian Alain Caille , the company advocates that Hayek is like a utopia of the market, unworkable in practice, used to justify social injustice “in the absence of buying social peace by ‘welfare state, the market order would have been swept away for a long time ” 44 .Hayek is sometimes seen by its critics as an “economist, philosopher and ideologue” 45 , a “radical liberal” 46 or even a “reactionary” 47 .Reviews of the Austrian School and libertarian From his earliest writings of Political Theory 48 , Hayek found that liberal authors to judge went too far in his critique of “rationalism.” While admitting that his rejection of the nominal pure philosophical proof would do better to accept a time scientist, they exposed the contradictions that this rejection was exposed.The Austrian economists supporters of Ludwig von massage in Seattle Mises epistemology differ from Popperian adopted by Hayek, Mises abandoning the concept of a “purely rational economic theory 49 , “his writings and his fame have yet contributed to restoring 50 .Proponents of a “rational political philosophy” exposed the contradictions that may arise due to argue for a particular social norm while denying the possibility of a rational definition of justice 51 . Thus, since the publication of The Constitution of Liberty Hayek in 1960, Ronald Hamowy and Rothbard have criticized the contradictions of his notion of “coercion” because it brings together under this common name both violent acts that the peaceful enjoyment of property rights 52 .
Following the Law, Legislation and Liberty , Hans-Hermann Hoppe takes the critique of Rothbard , asserting that such inconsistencies arise from the denial of self-ownership – or the libertarian principle of non-aggression which is equivalent – as only intellectually defensible criterion of justice, beyond the criticism, he found contradictions in the theory of “evolutionary” training standards Hayek, explaining the bias, ironic turn, thought as to exclude explanation of a process where it is by definition at work always and everywhere 53 .However, if the rationalist liberal economists criticize Hayek to have finally conceded to the experimentalism too dominant [ref. necessary] , yet it is in its Counter-Revolution of Science 54 found the best description of the abuses of the experimental method where it is logically inapplicable 55 to destroy the moral common and natural law , by disqualifying a priori philosophical reasoning which relies.That’s why all these liberal critics in the name of rationalism Hayek do not recognize less as an author whose reading is essential to initiate the most liberal traditions, and he put on so many tracks that few of the interesting those without a great intellectual debt to him.Finally, the liberal rationalists are grateful to Hayek:for helping to “rehabilitate logical proof in social theory,” even if it were to abandon himself to the end;have, by developing tests Ludwig von Mises from other points of view, focused on “the role of the human mind in society” (the theme from the novel by Ayn Rand , Atlas Shrugged ) and how violations of the law, first by the State Institutional Irresponsible, “destroy the information needed for social regulation”, first in central planning, then the economic policy, and finally in all other forms of state intervention;have thus, for it must also influence its ambiguities as to its belated recognition as an economist, contributed to “discredit reputation management destructive policies such as inflation and authoritarian planning, and inspired a revival of the debate of ideas as well as descriptive social theory that political philosophy. “